Learning Commons Displays: December

December 10 is observed as Human Rights Day by most member countries of the United Nations. The celebrations mark the anniversary of the unanimous adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948. In the United States, the observance is often known as Human Rights Week and extends from December 10 through December 16 to include another important rights anniversary, December 15, the date that the Bill of Rights became part of the United States Constitution in 1791.

The story of how the United Nations' Universal Declaration of Human Rights came into being is not widely known. When the charter for the establishment of the United Nations was drawn up in San Francisco, California, in 1945 it contained repeated references to the “human rights and fundamental freedoms” that it sought to support. It called upon member nations to promote and encourage these rights in cooperation with the world body. However, since the document nowhere spelled out exactly what these rights and freedoms were, it became necessary to frame such a definition before nations could be expected to promote and encourage them in any specific way.

The United Nations Commission on Human Rights was therefore called upon to prepare a statement of principles that could serve as a universal standard. As set forth in thirty articles, the enunciated principles became known as the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. Two of the document's chief authors were Charles Malik, Lebanon's representative to the United Nations, and Eleanor Roosevelt , the American delegate who was also the first to chair the Commission on Human Rights. Only Saudi Arabia, the Union of South Africa and six Soviet bloc nations abstained from the vote that resulted in the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights by the General Assembly of the United Nations on December 10, 1948.

The basic principles of the Universal Declaration are embodied in the following sections:

Article 1. All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They . . . should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood. Article 2. Everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration, without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, . . . opinion, national . . . origin, property, birth. . . . Article 3. Everyone has the right to life, liberty and security of person. Article 4. No one shall be held in slavery or servitude. . . . Article 5. No one shall be subjected to torture or to cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. Article 7. All are equal before the law and . . . entitled . . . to equal protection of the law. . . . Article 10. Everyone is entitled . . . to a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal, in the determination of . . . any criminal charge against him. Article 11. Everyone . . . has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law in a public trial [with] all the guarantees necessary for his defence. . . . Article 12. No one shall be subjected to arbitrary interference with his privacy, family, home or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honour and reputation. . . . Article 13. Everyone has the right to leave any country, including his own, and to return to his country. . . . Article 14. Everyone has the right to seek and enjoy in other countries asylum from persecution. . . . Article 18. Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. . . . Article 19. Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference. . . . Article 20. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association. Article 21. Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives. . . . The will of the people shall be the basis of the authority of government; this will shall be expressed in periodic and genuine elections which shall be by universal and equal suffrage and shall be held by secret vote. . . . Article 23. Everyone has the right to work, to free choice of employment, to just and favourable conditions of work. . . . Everyone, without any discrimination, has the right to equal pay for equal work.

Despite the limited success of certain implementing treaties, known as the Covenants on Human Rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights has remained a towering achievement as a statement of ideals and declaration of purpose. As such, it is one of the landmark documents of human dignity and of the worth, equality, and rights of individuals.

Bibliography

"Eleanor Roosevelt and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights." National Park Service , 25 June 2020, www.nps.gov/elro/learn/historyculture/udhr.htm. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.

"Human Rights Day." Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights , United Nations, www.ohchr.org/en/about-us/human-rights-day. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.

Kratz, Jessie."Human Rights for All." Pieces of History , US National Archives, 10 Dec. 2021, prologue.blogs.archives.gov/2021/12/10/human-rights-for-all-2/. Accessed 29 Apr. 2024.

Winter solstice is a term used for an astronomical event that marks the shortest day of the year. It is the day when an area of Earth receives the fewest hours of daylight and winter begins. Solstices are determined by the position of Earth’s axis in relation to the sun. There are two winter solstices each year, one in the Northern Hemisphere and one in the Southern Hemisphere. As far back as prehistoric times, solstices were commemorated with festivals and celebrations. In contemporary times, people often continue these commemorations by traveling to one of the sites where ancient people are believed to have marked the solstice.

Background

The word solstice comes from the Latin words sol , which means “sun,” and stitium , which means “stoppage.” Together, the word solstitium refers to the day when the light from the sun appears to be cut short. The solstice marks the point when the hours of daylight are at the absolute minimum. After the passage of the solstice, the hours of daylight gradually increase.

The seasons are determined by the position of Earth in relation to the sun. The planet revolves around an imaginary axis that ends in the North and South Poles. This axis is tilted at an angle of 23.4 degrees from Earth’s orbit, or path, around the sun. This tilt means that different parts of the planet get different amounts of sunlight at different times in Earth’s orbit around the sun, which takes a year. This alters the temperature and other weather conditions and is the cause of Earth’s seasons.

Earth is divided in half by an imaginary line that stretches around the planet at its midpoint. This is called the equator, from the Latin aequare , meaning “make equal.” This line theoretically divides Earth into two equal halves known as the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. For part of the year, the Northern Hemisphere is closer to the sun and experiences warmer weather, while the Southern Hemisphere is farther away and experiences the colder seasons. The rest of the year, the angle of Earth towards the sun changes, causing the Northern Hemisphere to experience colder weather while the Southern Hemisphere receives more sun and warmer weather.

There are other imaginary lines that also have an influence on Earth’s climate. These are lines of latitude, which run parallel to the equator and surround Earth. The lines are numbered, with the equator being designated as 0 and the lines nearest the poles being labeled as 90 for those closest to the North Pole and -90 for those closest to the South Pole.

Because Earth is tilted at a 23.4–degree angle to the sun, the lines of latitude at 23.4 degrees and -23.4 degrees line up directly under the sun at noon on specific days during the year. The line is called the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the Southern Hemisphere. The sun is directly over the Tropic of Cancer in the Northern Hemisphere in June, and the day is known as the June solstice. In the Southern Hemisphere, the Tropic of Capricorn lines up with the sun in December; this is known as the December solstice. These solstices mark the point of the longest day of daylight in each area.

In the Northern Hemisphere, the solstice that occurs in December is known as the winter solstice; in the Southern Hemisphere, the same day is known as the summer solstice. Likewise, the June solstice is known as the winter solstice in the Southern Hemisphere and the December solstice is the summer solstice. The exact day varies, with the December solstice landing between December 20 and 23 and the June solstice occurring between June 20 and 23. However, the solstices most commonly occur on December 21 and June 21, respectively.

The solstice actually occurs at a specific moment in time, marked by the exact instant the appropriate pole is tilted at the 23.4–degree mark from the sun. This time is officially recorded in Coordinated Universal Time, or UTC. Each area determines the exact time of the solstice by converting the appropriate UTC time to the time for the local time zone. This is because the solstice occurs at the exact same instant all around the world.

Overview

The winter solstice has long held significance for humankind. Ancient people are known to have seen it as a time representing death and rebirth because it was the point at which the days were shortest and then began lengthening. The realization that the days were getting shorter was frightening to the ancient people, who had little understanding of Earth’s relationship to the sun. They feared that the sun would not return, and would mean no light, heat, or food. This is why many celebrations of the solstice include the use of fire, as a way of honoring the light and inviting its return.

Many ancient monuments appear to be aligned to recognize the winter solstice. These include Stonehenge on the Salisbury plain in England, Newgrange in Ireland, and Machu Picchu in Peru. Sections of these monuments align directly with where the sun appears at the moment of the solstice, and may have been important gathering sites for people in ancient times. In contemporary times, many people gather at these sites to mark the solstice. In some cases, lotteries are held to select those who will be able to be present at the moment of the solstice because the demand is so great.

Other cultures also put special emphasis on the time of the solstice. For instance, in ancient Rome, midwinter festivals called Saturnalia after Saturn, the god of agriculture, were held that corresponded with the solstice. Some experts believe that these celebrations are also the reason the Christian holiday of Christmas is held in December instead of in springtime, when conditions would have been more in keeping with the events described in the Bible. Experts theorize the birthday of Jesus Christ was assigned a date in December to replace the pagan solstice festivals and make it easier for ancient people to accept new beliefs.

Bibliography

Byrd, Deborah. “Solstice Arrives December 21.” EarthSky , 15 Dec. 2017, earthsky.org/?p=2951. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

Chan, Melissa. “4 Winter Solstice Rituals from Around the World.” Time , 13 Dec. 2017, time.com/5060889/winter-solstice-rituals/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

Geggel, Laura. “Winter Solstice: The Science of the Shortest Day of 2017.” Live Science , 21 Dec. 2017, www.livescience.com/57280-winter-solstice-science-explained.html. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

Rose, Jane. “Winter Solstice 2017: 10 Facts about the Shortest Day of the Year.” Mental Floss ,20 Dec. 2017, mentalfloss.com/article/72659/10-things-you-probably-didnt-know-about-winter-solstice. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

“Seeing Equinoxes and Solstices from Space.” National Aeronautics and Space Administration , visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=52248. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

Tenenbaum, Laura Faye. “Winter Solstice: During the Largest Night, NASA Also Observes the Light.” National Aeronautics and Space Administration ,12 Dec. 2016, climate.nasa.gov/blog/2526/winter-solstice-during-the-longest-night-nasa-also-observes-the-light/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

“What Is the Winter Solstice?” Sky and Telescope , 21 Dec. 2017, www.skyandtelescope.com/astronomy-resources/what-is-the-winter-solstice/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

“What’s a Solstice?” SciJinks , scijinks.gov/solstice/. Accessed 27 Sept. 2018.

"Winter Solstice." National Park Service , 24 Dec. 2022, www.nps.gov/subjects/naturalphenomena/winter-solstice.htm. Accessed 22 Nov. 2024.